Theopetra Cave, located in Thessaly, Central Greece, and believed to be the place of the oldest human construction on earth, reopened to the public after 9 years of restoration work.
Located in the Meteora limestone rock formations, findings indicate that the cave was inhabited as early as 135,000 years ago.
According to archaeologists, evidence of human habitation in the cave can be traced without interruption from the Middle Palaeolithic to the end of the Neolithic period.
Theopetra cave has been described as being roughly quadrilateral in shape, with small niches on its periphery. It covers an area of about 500 square meters (5,380 square feet). The cave has a large entrance, which allows a good deal of light to enter into the interior.
Prior to the excavation of the Theopetra Cave, the prevailing scholarly view was that prehistoric habitation in Thessaly began only during the Neolithic period. The Mesolithic period—crucial as a transitional phase between the Pleistocene and Holocene—was believed to be absent in this region.
Evidence of Mesolithic and Paleolithic presence in Theopetra Cave
However, the systematic excavations at Theopetra dramatically altered this understanding. The findings revealed a long and continuous sequence of human occupation, pushing back the timeline of Thessalian prehistory and offering the first solid evidence of both Mesolithic and Paleolithic presence in the area.
The cave served as a long-term refuge for human populations, though occupation was likely intermittent, influenced by climatic fluctuations over tens of thousands of years.
One of the most significant discoveries was the extensive stratigraphic sequence within the cave. Excavations uncovered approximately six meters of cultural deposits—the thickest prehistoric stratification known in Greece—spanning from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic, through the Mesolithic, and into the Neolithic period.
These layers were especially deep (up to 4.5 meters) in the central section of the cave, where sediment had accumulated due to periodic water flow, forming a natural basin. In contrast, deposits near the periphery measured about 2.5 to 3 meters.
This sedimentation resulted from repeated invasions of water via karst channels from the surrounding rock formations, carrying in debris, stones, and other material. Some of this entered through the wide cave entrance as well. The most significant flooding event appears to have occurred toward the end of the Neolithic.
In addition, large boulders had collapsed from the cave’s roof, complicating the stratigraphy and contributing to the displacement of archaeological material.
The Holocene layers, representing the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, are thinner overall—between 1.5 and 2 meters thick—reflecting changes in environmental and cultural conditions. Climatic fluctuations are well-documented in the cave’s deposits, with alternating warm and cold episodes directly impacting human habitation patterns.
Cold phases and impact on population
Theopetra Cave is uniquely positioned at a low altitude and near the Pindos mountain range, with a north-facing entrance that made it especially sensitive to glacial episodes during the Pleistocene. These cold periods left detectable traces in the sediment record.
Micromorphological analyses revealed evidence of several cold phases, beginning with the cave’s lowest layer, dated to approximately 130,000–140,000 years ago. Another notable cold episode was identified in the layer associated with the first combustion feature, extending until around 18,000 years ago—the end of the last glacial maximum.
A remarkable burning horizon, with multiple hearths dated to approximately 60,000 years ago (isotopic stage 3), suggests a brief interruption of severe glacial conditions, perhaps allowing more sustained habitation.
Following the last glacial maximum, between 35,000 and 18,000 years ago, a sharp increase in the number of stone tools suggests a rise in the cave’s population. Around 12,000 years ago, Theopetra recorded another cold snap—its identification here marking the first such evidence in the eastern Mediterranean.
Human burials found in Theopetra Cave
Among the most compelling findings were human burials found in situ. These confirmed that the cave was not only a temporary shelter but a consistent home.
Two burials date to the postglacial Upper Paleolithic period, one of which has been radiocarbon-dated to between 14,990 and 14,060 BC. Three additional burials belong to the Mesolithic period, dated between 7,000 and 7,500 BC. All individuals belonged to Homo sapiens.
Although no burials from the Middle Paleolithic period were discovered, rare human footprints were found in these deeper layers—an exceptional find globally. Based on the typology of the stone tools from these strata, it is believed that Neanderthals once inhabited the cave.
Paleopathological and isotope analyses of Neolithic human remains revealed that the estimated 43 individuals who lived in the cave during that time were in generally good health.
One of the most important finds inside Theopetra Cave was the remains of an 18-year-old woman who lived in Greece 7,000 years ago.
After years of intensive work, the teenager’s face was reconstructed by scientists and she was given the name of “Avgi” (Dawn).
Avgi’s remains were found in 1993. She was named Avgi, which means dawn in Greek, because she marks the dawn of civilization in Greece.
The diet of humans living in Theopetra Cave
Their diet consisted primarily of C3 plants such as wheat, barley, legumes, and olives. This is supported by archaeobotanical remains, and organic residue analyses further revealed the use of animal fats, vegetable oils, and beeswax.
Meat likely came from domesticated animals, although there is some debate as to whether these were kept more for secondary products like milk and wool, an economic model common in Greece until the mid-20th century. Limited remains of fish and freshwater mollusks suggest occasional use of aquatic resources from the nearby Lithaios and Pinios rivers.
The final abandonment of the cave, around 4,000 BC, appears to be linked to a combination of environmental degradation and changes in lifestyle. Increased water infiltration, structural instability due to rockfalls, and a shift toward agriculture likely encouraged the population to move to open-air settlements nearby.
The findings at Theopetra are the product of decades of research by Dr. Nina Kyparissi-Apostolika, head of the Ephorate of Palaeoanthropology and Speleology of Greece’s Ministry of Culture and Sports, and her team. Given the cave’s exceptional importance in the study of prehistoric southeastern Europe, it has been designated a visitable archaeological site.
Artifacts and exhibits are on display at the Theopetra Cave Documentation and Education Center at the village entrance, providing the public with a window into this remarkable chapter of human history.