Being a sea people, since antiquity, Greeks have gone out exploring the world. Their quests led them to regions throughout the Mediterranean, including pre-Roman Spain. The story of Empuries, the metropolis, is the epitome of the story of Greeks in Iberia.
The First Explorers of Iberia
The ancient Greeks were not the first to establish their colonies on the Iberian Peninsula. The Phoenicians actually were. The ethnonym Phoenicians described peoples of Semitic origin.
Following the establishment of Greek colonies in southern Italy, the Greek tribes looked elsewhere to the Black Sea, Anatolia, Africa, and the western Mediterranean. One of the main settlements of Occidental Europe was the modern French city of Marseille. Through the growth of the city, the Greeks managed to establish cities further west on the Iberian Peninsula.
The Phocaeans of Pre-Roman Iberia
In the sixth century, Hecataeus of Miletus became the first to refer to the particular region of interest as Iberia. It was named after the Caucasian Iberia (modern Georgia), due to topographical similarities. After Hecataeus, Herodotus provided a more elaborate inquiry. The Phocaeans were credited by Herodotus with introducing Iberia to the Greeks.
Colaios of Samos, in particular, is said to have been the first to reach the metal-rich city of Tartessos in southwestern Spain.
Strabo noted that earlier historians thought of Iberia as extending to the Ebro River as far north as the Rhône, but the Pyrenees were considered the boundary at the time. Polybius recognized this boundary, describing Iberia as the land from the Mediterranean to Gibraltar and noting that the Atlantic side was unnamed. Polybius also made of mention of Saguntum, located at the southern end of the mountains and connecting Iberia and Celtiberia.
Expansion in Iberia by Greeks
After the prosperity of the colony at Marseille, the Phocaeans of Anatolia, along with other Greeks, expanded their field of influence and trade throughout coastal Iberia. Another factor for the migration and colonization of Iberia by the Phocaeans was the capture of Phocaea by the Persian Empire in the second half of the sixth century.
Thus, in the transitional period between the seventh and sixth centuries, many emporia, or trade cities were established. There are thirteen documented locations of Greek influence and dominance in the region which are:
- Portus Illicitanus
- Alicante
- Denia
- Sagunto
- Salauris
- Rosas, Girona
- Empuries
- Aljaraque
- Malaga (Disputed)
- El Puerto De Santa Maria
- Sant Martí d’Empuries
- Elche
The historical understanding of most of these locations is limited in these regions due to their small populations and subsequent conflicts with the Carthaginians and Romans. Through scarce resources, historians and archaeologists have coined Gadir, or modern-day Cadiz, as the Phoenician capital of Iberian colonization. For the Greeks, the most prominent trading post was the city of Empuries in modern-day Catalonia.
Empuries—The Metropolis of Greek Iberia
Situated in modern-day Catalonia in Spain, Empuries reigned as the metropolis for the Greeks of Iberia. Greeks from Phocaea established it in the sixth century BC.
The Palaiopolis, or Old Town, was founded on an island opposite the Costa Brava near the Pyrenees at the mouth of the Fluvià River by Greek settlers from Marseilles. It is now known as Sant Marti d’Empuries and is still occupied, making excavation difficult.
The Neapolis, or “New Town,” was later established on the mainland. The upper strata and dock from the second and first centuries BCE have been excavated, while the lower strata are less well known. Near the Neapolis, the native town of Indike of the Indigetes coexisted with the Greeks. Nonetheless, trade relations between these two groups seem to have established relatively peaceful relations.
The first artifact found in the settlement dates to 600 BC, with the settlement most likely forming around the second quarter of the sixth century BC. The city became renowned for its large Artemis of Ephesus temple. However, it has not yet been identified.
Outside of the city, a sanctuary was found which had been converted into a temple for the healing god Asclepius during the fourth century. Interestingly enough, the temple was made of white Pentelic and Parian marbles.
The artifacts found in the city include a vase along with intriguing mosaics. One of these mosaics was found in a symposium hall of the Neapolis with an ancient Greek inscription (ΗΔΥΚΟΙΤΟΣ), meaning “it is sweet to be reclined.” Along with the mosaic inscriptions, a cult statue of Asclepius has been found as well.
Carthaginian and Roman Eras of Iberia
By the fourth and third centuries BC, the city had grown to be one of the main trading partners of Carthage. It played a significant role in the Punic wars between Carthage and Rome.
Carthage descended from Phoenicians, who migrated to northwestern Africa. Despite their ancestry, they became an independent group, worshipping the Greek pantheon, yet preserving the Semitic language.
In the third century BC, tensions between Carthage and Rome grew, calling into question the allegiance of Empuries. Prior to the First Punic War, Empuries and Carthage shared a prosperous relationship as highlighted by their coinage. In both coinage systems, Persephone covers an entire half.
The First Punic War (264-241 BC) brought an era of Carthaginian dominance over many cities on the Iberian coast along with Empuries. During this era, the city replaced the image of Persephone on its coinage with Arethusa of Syracuse. Along with a reconstruction of its walls, it is possible there was hostility. Following the war, the treaty of Ebro (226 BC) brought Empuries into the Roman sphere of influence.
The Second Punic War completely brought Empuries under Roman rule. It was captured in 218 BC and played a strategic role in disrupting Hannibal’s communication lines. Despite unsuccessful rebellions, peace was established after the war.
Along with peace, the city prospered with an influx of trade and infrastructure. During this era, the Asclepium was enlarged, along with the creation of temples for Serapis and Isis. Julius Caesar was the last Roman to rebuild the city around 45 BC. A Roman bathhouse, a defensive wall, and other mansions have been found from this era.
The Dusk of the Greek Iberian Settlement
During the reign of Emperor Trajan in the second century AD, the city had already begun to decline. The Roman era of the city received a final blow during the Frankish invasion of 265. Following this invasion, the only settlement left was Palaiopolis. During the Gothic era and the Arab conquest (715 AD), the port remained part of a bishop’s sea, indicating a Christian presence.
The Epilogue for the Greeks of Iberia
The fate of the Greek metropolis of Empuries mirrors the end of the Greek presence in Iberia. The fall of the Roman Empire, with the continuous raids from Gothic tribes and the latter Arab dominance, led to the disruption and elimination of the vibrant Greek presence.
However, there remains an obvious Greek presence in the region. The Iberia Graeca initiative of the Spanish government has been studying the impact of Hellenism on Spanish history through archaeological evidence left behind.