Scientists have used a powerful supercomputer to create a picture of Earth’s distant future—a world where extreme heat, suffocating humidity, and violent volcanic activity could make the planet unlivable, potentially driving humanity extinct.
The research, conducted by the University of Bristol and published in Nature Geoscience, suggests that in about 250 million years, Earth’s landmasses will merge into a single supercontinent called Pangaea Ultima.
Dr. Alexander Farnsworth, lead researcher and climate scientist at the University of Bristol said that this future supercontinent presents a triple challenge for life: intense heat, high humidity, and increased volcanic activity.
The heat trap
Scientists say Pangaea Ultima will form near the equator, where temperatures are already high. Without vast oceans to absorb and distribute heat, the landlocked interior of the supercontinent will become a massive heat trap.
Simulations predict temperatures regularly exceeding 40°C (104°F), with some areas reaching over 50°C (122°F). This extreme heat, combined with dense humidity, will push conditions beyond the limits most mammals, including humans, can survive.
Mammals depend on sweating or panting to cool their bodies. In Pangaea Ultima, the moisture-rich atmosphere will prevent sweat from evaporating, leading to deadly overheating.
The study estimates that around 92% of Earth’s landmass will become inhospitable to mammals, leaving only narrow coastal strips and polar regions as potential safe zones.
Volcanic eruptions and a brighter sun
The formation of Pangaea Ultima will also trigger increased volcanic activity. As tectonic plates collide, magma will surge through the cracks, releasing massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This greenhouse gas will intensify global warming, further destabilizing ecosystems already under pressure from extreme heat.
Adding to the crisis, the Sun is expected to become approximately 2.5% brighter in 250 million years. The increased solar radiation, combined with heat-trapping gases and the loss of cooling ocean currents, will create an environment unlike anything Earth has experienced before.
Survival strategies: Adapt, hide, or leave
While this apocalyptic landscape seems distant, researchers speculate that if humans still exist, survival will require drastic adaptations.
Biological evolution could lead to thicker skin, modified sweat glands, and altered body shapes to better release heat. However, such changes would take millions of years.
Pangaea Proxima is a possible future supercontinent configuration. Consistent with the supercontinent cycle, Pangaea Proxima could form within the next 250 million years.
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Technology might provide faster solutions. Experts suggest that future civilizations could build underground cities to escape the blistering surface. Subterranean environments would offer stable temperatures and protection from extreme weather.
Another potential adjustment involves a shift to nocturnal living. Similar to modern desert animals, future humans might work and move exclusively at night when temperatures drop to survivable levels.
Lessons from the past
Earth has experienced similar climate upheavals before. The formation of supercontinents has been linked to mass extinctions in the past when tectonic shifts disrupted climates and ecosystems.
One significant event was the end-Triassic extinction which occurred approximately 200 million years ago, marked by massive volcanic eruptions that released greenhouse gases, leading to the extinction of nearly 76% of all species.
“Extinction events have happened before and will happen again,” said Dr. Hannah Davies, a geologist at the GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences. “Life will find a way—but it may not be the life we recognize today.”
A distant but relevant warning
Although Pangaea Ultima remains hundreds of millions of years away, the forces driving its formation are already in motion. Tectonic plates continue to shift beneath our feet. Greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere. Climate patterns are becoming more unpredictable.
While this supercontinent catastrophe is not a threat to our generation, scientists say it serves as a stark reminder: Earth’s climate is always evolving, and its habitability is not guaranteed.