Keros, an island in Greece’s Aegean Sea, has remained uninhabited for centuries but holds secrets of a lost Bronze Age civilization, with a 4,500-year-old mystery still unsolved. Millennia have passed over the small, barren Cycladic island, leaving marks of a glorious past alongside traces of rampant looting and antiquities smuggling.
Just two nautical miles from the popular “boutique” island of Ano Koufonisi, Keros revealed its mystery in 1963, when archaeologist Christos Doumas discovered hundreds of broken figurines and vases. These enigmatic relics dating to the Early Bronze Age (2800-2200 BC), hint at a once-flourishing civilization whose secrets remain unsolved.
British archaeologist Colin Renfrew followed soon after to investigate the site, which proved to be a trove of millennia-old findings with puzzling origins and purposes. Actively involved in the excavations on the small island, he published The Emergence of Civilization: The Cyclades and the Aegean in The Third Millennium BC in 1972.
Keros was a paradise of looters and antiquities smugglers until about forty to fifty years ago. In the documentary The Enigma of Keros, elderly locals of Ano Koufonisi recall the 1960s, when a man would arrive daily, asking fishermen to take him to Keros and returning every afternoon with a full sack of unknown contents. Apparently, what remained for archaeologists to study was about five hundred fragments of figurines, more than 1,500 pieces of marble bottles, and a similar number of pieces of clay pots—and that was only from a surface search.
From 1987 to 1991, Colin Renfrew co-directed excavations at Daskalio, an islet just off Keros. In 2006-2008—by then Lord Colin Renfrew since 1991—he led further excavations, and he remained involved in deciphering the enigma of the little Greek island until the early 2020s. He believed that most of the looting had taken place at the Kavos site on the west side of Keros in 1958.
While Kavos, on the western side of Keros, was the main site of ritual deposits and looting, nearby Daskalio revealed a remarkable Bronze Age settlement, once connected to Keros by a narrow land bridge now submerged beneath the sea.
Legends and stories about the “Treasure of Keros” have surfaced over the years. One suggests that Keros, rather than Delos, was the sacred island of the Cyclades. According to one version of the legend, the island was called “Asteria” and was known as the true birthplace of the ancient Greek gods Apollo and Artemis.
Bronze Age past and antiquity smuggling haunt Greece’s uninhabited island Keros
The findings—or rather, the missing objects—culminated in the widely-spread myth of the “Treasure of Keros.” For archaeologists, the Keros excavations represent the dark side of archaeological research.
The number of antiquities smuggled from the Greek island, whose history reaches back to the Bronze Age, cannot be estimated. In the 1980s, at an auction in Karlsruhe, Germany, titled “The Art of the Cyclades,” a set of stolen antiquities from Keros was brazenly promoted as rare ancient artifacts “of unknown origin.”
It later emerged that these belonged to the Erlenmeyer Collection, but Greece did not submit a formal claim to recover them. It was an omission that became decisive in 1990, when British courts rejected Greece’s appeal against the Sotheby’s auction, where the so-called “Treasure of Keros” was again presented for sale.
Even so, the Museum of Cycladic Art, thanks to the will of Dolly Goulandris, was able to purchase 58 Cycladic figurines from this auction, while the N.P. Goulandris Foundation acquired six more in the following years. In this way, a significant portion of the “Treasure of Keros” was repatriated.
Today, several museums across the world still host the famous Cycladic figurines, as evidence suggests that smuggling had begun as early as 1884. In her study The Treasure of Keros. Myth or Reality? archaeologist and Museum of Cycladic Art curator Peggy Sotirakopoulou delves into the mystery of Keros and the stolen artifacts. Laboratory analyses by Democritus University in Athens show that the marble used to craft the figurines came from eastern Naxos as well as from Keros itself.
The broken Bronze Age artifacts on Greece’s uninhabited island
The looting of the site and the archaeological discoveries on the tiny Aegean island of Greece complicated the research and contributed to the enigma of Keros as the site of a Bronze Age civilization. A series of questions emerged: What role did these Bronze Age objects serve? Why were they concentrated on such a small island, and what was the function of the space in which they were found? Moreover, were the artifacts broken by antiquity smugglers through careless handling or deliberately fractured as part of an ancient ritual? If they were offerings, which gods were they meant to honor?
Both the Greek teams of archaeologists led by Christos Doumas in 1963 and Foteini Zafeiropoulou in 1967, as well as the later joint Greek-British team of Renfrew, Doumas, and Evangelia Maragkou in 1987 concluded that the artifacts most likely originated from the Kavos area, on the western side of Keros. This site lies directly opposite the small islet of Daskalio, which in antiquity was linked to Keros. Kavos appears to have served as a focal point for activity, while Daskalio, with its steep rocky terrain, has revealed traces of significant Bronze Age occupation.
Deciphering the purpose of the location is difficult, as it does not resemble a typical settlement, cemetery, or workshop. Renfrew put forward the most influential view: that Kavos must have functioned as a sanctuary, where broken objects of a symbolic nature were deliberately deposited as part of ritual activity. Subsequently, the discovery of an extensive fortified settlement and cemetery on the islet of Daskalio, which in the Bronze Age was connected to Keros by a narrow causeway, led Doumas to suggest that Keros itself may have served as the sacred island of the Cyclades.
According to Renfrew, the fragmentation of the figurines was deliberately carried out at another location as part of a religious ritual, after which the pieces were transported to Keros and deposited in the sanctuary. The British archaeologist further argued that the ritual practice likely continued at the site for at least three centuries. He noted that the individual fragments had been brought by people from across the Cyclades, making Kavos on Keros a kind of sacred refuge where symbolic objects were deposited and preserved.
Was Keros Greece’s first maritime sanctuary?
The extraordinary amount of figurines discovered on the small Cycladic island suggests a role far greater than its size. According to British archaeologist Renfrew, who studied the site, Keros’ influence in the Early Bronze Age may have been comparable to that of Delos in later historical times. He argued that the sheer volume of artifacts provides the strongest evidence. With a peak population of two hundred people, the island itself could not have supported such an extensive cemetery, which, in fact, has never even been located.
According to Renfrew, the breaking of the figurines was deliberate and constituted part of a religious ritual. After being intentionally fragmented, the pieces were transported to Keros and deposited in the sanctuary.
For a long time, scholars believed that the figurines had been broken by antiquities smugglers during illegal excavations—a common occurrence in such illicit digs. However, modern research techniques have shown that the figurines had already been broken by the Early Cycladic period. Renfrew further notes that their fragmentation had not even occurred on Keros itself. Instead, the island appears to have served as the ritual destination for these objects, a sacred site akin to a pilgrimage for the people of that era.
Renfrew suggested that the Cycladic people may have used the figurines and vases in rituals, possibly carrying them in processions, in a way reminiscent of how Christian icons are paraded in Greek towns today. After the objects had been used for an indeterminate period of time, the worshipers would “retire” them, breaking them and transporting the fragments to Keros. It is possible that this religious ritual occurred at regular intervals, perhaps annually, though it may have also taken place less frequently.
Because such items have not been found on surrounding islands, it is possible that many were deliberately thrown into the sea during the journey to Keros. The British archaeologist proposed that the broken figurines and vases were part of a symbolic rebirth ceremony. Once a sacred object had completed its life cycle, it was ritually “retired—fragmented and carried to Keros, the sacred island where it was deposited.
Bronze Age settlement discovered on Daskalio off Greece’s island of Keros
Just one hundred meters (about 325 ft) from Keros, on the small islet of Daskalio, archaeologists uncovered a new chapter in the island’s mystery. In 2006, Renfrew discovered an unspoiled site containing broken figurines alongside the remains of a small settlement. Geological studies indicate that during the Bronze Age, Keros and Daskalio were connected, with the islet later separating from the main island.
Archaeologists also discovered a structure resembling a guesthouse, likely used to accommodate pilgrims visiting the sanctuary. Remarkably, the building was constructed from marble transported by sea from other islands—a feat of considerable effort and coordination. According to excavation data, this activity on Keros and Daskalio continued for roughly four hundred to five hundred years, that is, until around 2000 BC.
In 2018, Renfrew, together with Cambridge archaeology professor Michael Boyd, confirmed that Keros was the epicenter of a wider Cycladic network. The excavations established that the island indeed hosted the world’s earliest known maritime sanctuary.
Among the findings at Kavos were deposits transported from various Cycladic islands: broken figurines, sculptures carved from Cycladic marble, fragments of broken marble arrows, and shattered pottery vessels. These objects had been deliberately broken prior to transport as part of religious rituals and were deposited at Kavos. Strategically located, Kavos was the island’s best natural harbor and overlooked the northern, southern, and western Aegean. The discoveries highlight how the small island of Keros in Greece played a central role during the Bronze Age, serving as a hub for ritual activity across the Cyclades.
The new excavations have also revealed insight archaeologists consider highly significant: evidence of a maritime transportation network in the Aegean as early as 4500 BC. The remains on Daskalio were constructed from high-quality marble, with masonry enhanced by carefully worked marble elements.
This marble had to be imported from Naxos, and the sheer volume required to build the structure, including the impressive stairs that have been unearthed, indicates the existence of a well-organized transportation network among the Cycladic islands and possibly even connections reaching more distant regions. The findings confirm the geologists’ assessment that Keros and Daskalio were once a single island in Greece, connected by a strip of land that later submerged beneath the sea.
The “Kerosian Confederation”
Around 2800–2500 BC, the settlement of Keros was located on what is today the islet of Daskalio, forming the heart of one of the richest Bronze Age sites in the Cyclades. Excavations at Daskalio revealed a 16-meter-long (around 52 ft) building constructed from imported Naxian marble, within which three bronze axes were found, raising questions as to their purpose.
A small, circular building at the top of the hill may have served as a summit sanctuary or observatory, and inside, archaeologists found a puzzling collection of 350 pebbles from the sea, perhaps used in ritual practices, adding yet another layer of mystery to the site. Especially impressive, however, was the sophistication of the building’s construction, specifically in terms of the carefully engineered stairs, which reflect advanced building techniques unexpected for that period.
Judging by the remains, the entire island in the Cyclades shows evidence of Bronze Age development, with structures and fortification walls built from high-quality marble from Naxos island. Archaeologists believe the overall impression of the site would have resembled an urban settlement, an extraordinary level of advancement for the time, predating the urban centers of Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece.
More importantly, the constructions, the imported marble brought from distant islands, and the steady flow of people visiting Keros all point to the existence of a functional and sophisticated network, not only within the Cyclades but across the Aegean Sea as a whole. This suggests a Cycladic—or even broader Aegean—society, the epicenter of which was Keros. Renfrew referred to this network as the “Kerosian Confederation,” underscoring the island’s central role in Bronze Age Greece.
Further proof of Keros’ importance comes from the discovery of bellows and molds for metallurgical objects. Prehistoric Keros is considered a center of metallurgy, a significant point since metalworking was crucial for the flourishing of civilization throughout the Bronze Age. Keros and Daskalio contained no natural ores, meaning metals had to be imported from other islands such as Kythnos and Serifos, with all processing carried out on Keros. This evidence underscores that the island functioned not only as a pan-Cycladic sanctuary but also as a hub of artisanal and commercial activity.
Greece’s Early Bronze Age island of Keros in the Classical period
An inscription dating from 425 BC, listing the names of tax-paying allies of the Athenian Republic, also sheds light on Keros. Known as “Keria” during the Classical period, the island paid a tax, specifically 10 drachmas and 3 obols, indicating that it was inhabited at the time and was a member of the Athenian Alliance. This continuity highlights the long-standing importance of the island in Greece, which had already been a center of activity during the Bronze Age.
There is little additional information about the island after the Classical period. In the Middle Ages, Keros was used as a hideout by pirates who ravaged not only the Aegean but the wider Mediterranean. In modern times, up until 1952, it was property of the Monastery of Panagia Chozoviotissa of Amorgos, after which Keros was granted by the Agricultural Service to shepherds for grazing.
The Cycladic figurines discovered on the island have inspired great artists such as Picasso, Brancusi and Henry Moore. Their rarity and beauty also made them a frequent target of widespread antiquities trafficking. These figurines highlight Keros’ enduring significance, showing how it shaped artistic and cultural traditions across millennia in the particular region and Greece in general.
Standing in the middle of the Cyclades, basking in its ancient glory and the Aegean sun, Keros was a flourishing, pioneering Bronze Age island. It served not only as an epicenter of religious activity but also as an early hub of cooperation, connectivity, and communication. Archaeologists have yet to uncover the full secret of this advanced island society, whose creativity and imagination allowed its people to develop what seems to be the world’s first “information age,” exchanging ideas and goods with communities throughout the Cyclades and beyond.
The advanced architecture and sophisticated urban planning on this small, rocky island predated the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations and provided a blueprint for later societies in the Eastern Mediterranean. Scholars continue to study Greece’s island of Keros through the ongoing Keros Project, aiming to fully unveil the secrets of this remarkable early Bronze Age community.
